Intervocalic voicing
voiceless stop → voiced / V _ V 17w +1
Intervocalic spirantisation
voiceless stop → fricative / V _ V 17w +1
Apocope (final vowel loss)
vowel → ∅ / _ # syntax ×1.1 29w ·
Palatalisation
velar stop → palatal fricative / _ front V 3w ·
Final vowel raising
mid vowel → high / _ # syntax ×1.2 11w +4
Umlaut
back V → front / _ … front V (i-mutation: fōt/fēt) 3w ·
Vowel breaking
V → diphthong / _ # (unconditioned; e→ie, a→ai, u→uo…) syntax ×1.1 48w +4
Initial fortition
glide → voiced fricative / # _ (j→ʒ, w→v) syntax ×0.6 1w ·
Unstressed vowel reduction
unstressed V → ə (quality neutralised outside the stressed syllable) 29w +1
Unstressed syllable loss
unstressed V → ∅ (calidum → caldu; the engine of Latin → French) 29w +1